 Bubalus
mindorensis
Tamaraw |
Taxonomy | Description
| Reproduction | Ecology
| Behavior | Distribution
| Conservation | Remarks
| Literature |
| Taxonomy
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Bubalus mindorensis [Heude, 1888].
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Citation: Mem. Hist. Nat. Emp. Chin., 2:4.
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Type locality: Philippines, Mindoro.
The taxonomic record (above) is taken from Wilson and Reeder (1993).
B. mindorensis is included in the subgenus Bubalus
[Hamilton-Smith, 1827] , a classification based primarily on horn morphology
(Nowak, 1991; Custodio et al., 1996). Indeed, the tamaraw was
once classified as a subspecies of the Asiatic water buffalo (B.
bubalis) (Corbet and Hill, 1992). However, some authors place this
species in the subgenus (genus) Anoa (see Rabor, 1977; Nowak, 1991).
B. mindorensis is monotypic, with no recognized subspecies,
and has no synonyms (Custodio et al., 1996).
General Characteristics
Bubalus mindorensis is smaller and stockier than the Asiatic water
buffalo (Bubalus bubalis), and should not be confused with the small
carabao, a domestic form of B. bubalis used in the Philippines (Nowak,
1991). Males have thicker necks than females, although there is little
other sexual dimorphism (Steere, 1890, in Custodio et al., 1996).
Reported measurements are scarce, but females have been estimated to
weigh between 200 and 300 kilograms.
Reported measurements for tamaraw (Bubalus mindorensis) |
| Source |
Adult Weight |
Head & Body Length |
Shoulder Height
|
Tail Length |
| Buchholtz, 1990 |
- |
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100 cm |
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| Corbet and Hill, 1992 |
- |
- |
100-105 cm |
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Hooper, 1941
in Custodio et al., 1996 |
- |
220 cm |
94.5 cm |
60 cm |
| Rabor, 1977 |
- |
- |
120 cm |
- |
Roth and Montemayor-Taca, 1971
in Custodio et al., 1996 |
~180-220 kg  |
- |
- |
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| Talbot and Talbot, 1966 |
~275 kg |
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- |
- |
Adult tamaraw are dark brown to grayish black in color, and have more hair
than the closely related Asiatic water buffalo, Bubalus bubalis (Rabor,
1977). The hair on the back (from the neck to the hindquarters) is
directed forwards, rather than towards the tail, resulting in whorls along
the hindquarters where the growth changes direction (Custodio et al.,
1996). In addition, there may be a darker stripe along the dorsal
ridge (Talbot and Talbot, 1966). The limbs are short and the body
is stocky (Rabor, 1977). White markings are present above the hooves
as well as on the inner lower forelegs, similar to the lowland anoa (B.
depressicornis) of Sulawesi (Custodio et al., 1996).
The face is the same color as the body, and is accentuated by whitish markings
on each side of the lower jaw in some individuals (Custodio et al.,
1996). A white gorget on throat may also be present in some individuals
(Corbet and Hill, 1992). The only facial markings seen in the majority
of individuals are a pair of gray-white stripes running from the inner corner
of the eye towards the horns, creating a light "eyebrow" (Custodio et
al., 1996). The skin of the nose and lips is black (Custodio et
al., 1996). The ears are moderate in size, with a length of
approximately 13.5 cm from the notch to the tip (Rabor, 1977; Custodio et
al., 1996). White markings are present on the inside of the ears
(Custodio et al., 1996)
Both sexes of tamaraw have horns which are short, stout, and black in color,
growing in a "V", rather than the arcing "C" of B. bubalis (Rabor,
1977; Custodio et al., 1996). The unmistakable wedge-shaped
horns have flat surfaces, and are triangular at their base (Rabor, 1977;
Corbet and Hill, 1992). The distal parts of the horns are rounded,
with the sharp tips coming close together (Rabor, 1977). A pronounced
series of irregular ridges and pits form rings around the horns (Rabor,
1977). Due to tamaraw rubbing their horns on various surfaces, the
outer surfaces of the horns are usually worn, while the inner sides remain
very rough (Rabor, 1977). Reported horn lengths range from 35.5-51.0
cm (Nowak, 1991); actual measurements summarized by Custodio et al.
(1996) include 35.5 cm, 38 cm, 40 cm, 42 cm, and 43 cm. The basal
circumference of one horn was 33.5 cm (Hooper, 1941, in Custodio et al.,
1996).
Ontogeny and Reproduction
After a gestation of 276-315 days, a single young is born (Buchholtz, 1990).
Young tamaraw may be born throughout Mindoro's rainy season (from June
to November), when food is most plentiful. However, at Mount Iglit,
reports of newborn or young animals garnered by Talbot and Talbot (1966)
were restricted to December and January. Newborn tamaraws are reddish-brown
in color, with dark brown legs and a black mid-dorsal line (Kuehn, 1986).
At a few months of age, the body color is light brown, and gradually
darkens to slate in color at 3-4 years of age (Kuehn, 1986).
Females do not associate as closely with their young as do the Asiatic water
buffalo (B. bubalis). One mother was observed by Kuehn (1986)
grazing 50 meters away from a neonate, which lay on the ground with the neck
stretched out along the ground. Although reminiscent of the "hider"
behavior seen in some other ungulates, to what degree tamaraw fit the pattern
is unknown. Young animals may stay with their mothers for several years,
dispersing when 2-4 years of age (Custodio et al., 1996). Although
an interbirth interval of two years was reported by Custodio et al.
(1996), one female observed by Kuehn (1986) was accompanied by three juveniles.
The life span of B. mindorensis is about 20-25 years (Buchholtz,
1990).
Ecology
Tamaraw inhabit forests, grasslands, and marshy areas, and were previously
found across the island of Mindoro from sea level to elevations over 2,000
meters (Rabor, 1977). At Mount Iglit, vegetation cover is dominated
by three grassland types - cogon (Imperata cylindrica) in drier regions,
talahib (Saccharum spontaneum) in the wettest areas (both of which
may reach heights over 2 meters in height), and shorter grasses, including
Themeda sp., Cynodon arcuatus, Digitaria sanguinalis,
Eleusine indica, Sorghum nitidum, Alloteropsis semialata,
and Paspalum scrobiculatum, which grow on exposed slopes (Talbot
and Talbot, 1966; Kuehn, 1986). The original dipterocarp forests are
found only as remnants along limestone ridges where there are protected from
fire (Talbot and Talbot, 1966). Permanent and seasonal rivers are found
throughout the region, and are often lined by reeds (Phragmites spp.),
bamboo (Dinochloa spp. and Schizostachyum spp.), and dipterocarp
forest fragments (Kuehn, 1986).
Tamaraw are largely solitary, with the only lasting association being between
a mother and her offspring (Talbot and Talbot, 1966). 82% of 218
observations made by Kuehn (1986) of adult males were of lone individuals,
while adult females were either solitary or accompanied by calves in 66%
of 107 observations (Kuehn, 1986). The largest group observed by Kuehn
(1986) was comprised of six individuals: an adult bull, a cow and calf, and
three immature males less than 3.5 years old, while one group of eleven animals
was reported to Talbot and Talbot (1966). Males and females may associate
throughout the year, if only fleetingly for a few hours (Custodio et
al., 1996). The solitary nature of the tamaraw is suggested to
be an adaptation to a forest environment, where large groups would prove
to be a hindrance (Eisenberg, 1966, in Kuehn, 1986).
The tamaraw is primarily a grazer, feeding on grasses such as Cynodon
arcuatus, Digitaria sanguinalis, Eleusine indica, Sorghum
nitidum, Paspalum scrobiculatum, Alloteropsis semialata,
and Vetiveria zizanoides (Talbot and Talbot, 1966). Young bamboo
shoots (Schizostachyum spp.) may be eaten when grasses grow tall and
coarse (Talbot and Talbot, 1966). Although plentiful, cogon (Imperata
cylindrica) and talahib (Saccharum spontaneum) are only eaten
when it is short and green (Talbot and Talbot, 1966).
Behavior
Although formerly diurnal, tamaraw have become largely nocturnal due to
encroachment and disturbance caused by humans (Talbot and Talbot, 1966).
Tamaraw feed in open grasslands, resting amongst tall grasses or dense
forest (Talbot and Talbot, 1966). Captive individuals feed most
frequently between 0600 and 1000 and 1800 to 2200 hours (Momongan and Walde,
1993, in Custodio et al., 1996). Foraging accounts for 24% of
the tamaraws time budget, with rumination occupying an additional 26% of
the day (Momongan and Walde, 1993, in Custodio et al., 1996).
Mud wallowing in captivity was observed most frequently during the day time,
and this activity is likely important in wild tamaraw as well, as indicated
by the presence of mud wallows throughout appropriate habitat (Talbot and
Talbot, 1966; Momongan and Walde, 1993, in Custodio et al., 1996).
Running and pawing dirt were observed most frequently at night in captive
animals by Momongan and Walde (1993, in Custodio et al., 1996).
B. mindorensis has a well-known reputation for fierceness when cornered,
although many reports are unsubstantiated (Rabor, 1977). Few agonistic
encounters have been witnessed - of the eight male-male conflicts observed
by Kuehn (1986), all were pursuits. Half of these occurred when the
animals were condensed into small fragments of habitat due to fires, while
two others were of an adult male chasing dispersing juvenile males. The
distances of the pursuits were quite lengthy - between 100 and 1,000 meters,
with an average of 300 meters (Kuehn, 1986). The threat posture of
cows involves lowering the head so that the horns are vertical, accompanied
with lateral shaking; tamaraw have not been observed tossing earth or making
vertical motions with the horns (Kuehn, 1986).
Genetics
A female tamaraw examined by Fischer and Hohn (1976) has a karyotype of 2n
= 46 (in Custodio et al., 1996).
Distribution
The tamaraw is endemic to the Philippine island of Mindoro (9,735
km2 in area), with a range estimated to be less than 100
km2 (IUCN, 2002). While formerly widespread across the island,
this species is now believed to occupy only two or three areas: Mount
Iglit-Baco National Park (within the Iglit range), Mount Aruyan/Sablayan,
and possibly Mount Calavite Tamaraw Preserve (IUCN, 2002). Formerly,
in the Pleistocene epoch, the tamaraw was also found on the island of Luzon
(Beyer, 1957 in Kuehn, 1986).
Countries: (Philippines (IUCN, 2002).
Range Map (Redrawn from Custodio et al., 1996, the exact
area of occurrence is unknown)
Conservation Status
B. mindorensis is classified as critically endangered (Criteria: C1)
by the IUCN (2002), an upgraded listing from the 1996 listing of endangered.
The tamaraw is listed on CITES Appendix I (CITES, 2003). In 1900
there were an estimated 10,000 tamaraw on Mindoro, 120 in 1975, 370 in 1987
(Petocz, 1989, in Corbet and Hill, 1992). The current population is
estimated at between 30 and 200 individuals (IUCN, 2002). Major threats
to the continued survival of the tamaraw include habitat loss as a result
of agriculture and the development of human infrastructure and the introduction
of diseases and parasites from domestic species (IUCN, 2002). The tamaraw
has also been overhunted for meat and as a trophy animal (Rabor, 1977).
Hunting was carefully regulated prior to the Second World War, but
in the times since then a growing human population, lumber operations, ranching,
and widespread availability of firearms on Mindoro have caused a dramatic
decline in numbers (Talbot and Talbot, 1966). Although protected by
law, the illegal capture and killing of this species continues to occur (Rabor,
1977).
Remarks
B. mindorensis is the only native bovid to the Philippines, and is
the countries largest native land animal (Rabor, 1977). The
name Tamaraw is from the language of the people of the Philippine
island of Luzon, and is spelled with considerable variation, with tamarau,
tamarou, and tamarao being common variants (Rabor, 1977).
Boubalos (Greek) a buffalo. Mindoro is an island in the Philippines;
-ensis (Latin) suffix meaning belonging to, the tamaraw is restricted
to to this island (see distribution for more information).
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Local names (from Rabor, 1977)
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Tamaraw, Timaraw [Mindoro]
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French
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Tamarao, Tamarau (Buchholtz, 1990; IUCN, 2002)
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German
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Tamarau, Tamarao, Mindorobüffel (Buchholtz, 1990)
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Spanish
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Tamarau, Búfalo de Mindoro (IUCN, 2002)
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